The history of ancient Egypt spans the period from the early prehistoric settlements of the northern Nile valley to the Roman conquest of Egypt in 39 BC. The pharaonic period the period in which Egypt was ruled by a pharaoh is dated from the 32nd century BC when Upper and Lower Egypt were unified until the country fell under Macedonian rule in 332 BC.

Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeast Africa situated in the Nile Valley. Ancient Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3100BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom ruling much of Nubia and a sizable portion of the Levant after which it entered a period of slow decline. During the course of its history Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers including the Hyksos the Nubians the Assyrians the Achaemenid Persians and the Macedonians under Alexander the Great. The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death ruled Egypt until 30BC when under Cleopatra it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.

The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops which supported a more dense population and social development and culture. With resources to spare the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions the early development of an independent writing system the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects trade with surrounding regions and a military intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes religious leaders and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids temples and obelisks; a system of mathematics a practical and effective system of medicine irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques the first known planked boats Egyptian faience and glass technology new forms of literature and the earliest known peace treaty made with the Hittites. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.